Manual

Hello World

After installing Exodus, you can develop Exodus programs from any operating system command line.

This introduction concentrates on simple development from the command line because it is common to all platforms.

Edit

Use Exodus's all-in-one editor+compiler+cataloger 'edic'

edic hello1

edic will give you a skeleton Exodus program which you can develop as you wish.

There must be one and only one "function main()" statement and this is run when the program is started.

By convention, main() must return an integer value. If desired, this can be used to indicate "success" with zero or "failure" with some error number.

The programinit() and programexit() lines are required and provide all the standard multivalue system variables using a simple C++ class macro.

#include <exodus/program.h>

programinit()

function main() {
        printl("hello1 says 'Hello World!'");
        return 0;
}

programexit()

Save and compile

Make any changes you fancy to the skeleton and save it.

NB Even if you just want to try out the skeleton program exactly as it is without any changes, you must still explicitly save it - otherwise, if you just exit without saving, edic will assume you didn't want a hello1 program, and will cancel. For the default editor (nano), explicit save is usually Ctrl+O.

Upon saving hello1, edic will compile and catalog it.

Run

To run/open/execute your new hello1 program just type its name.

hello1

and the output is ...

hello1 says 'Hello World!'

Deployment of Compiled Programs

All programs you develop with Exodus's edic or compile commands are stored in the same directory as their source code. They are also copied to a folder in your home directory. This folder is called "Exodus" on Windows and bin or lib on other operating systems.

On Windows, the user who installs Exodus can run any program they develop in Exodus by typing its name at any command prompt. It does not matter what the current working directory is because the Exodus installer permanently adds the Exodus home program directory to the PATH of the user who installs it.

Users other than the user who installed Exodus on Windows, and all users on Linux, Mac or other operating systems, must type "exodus" at a command prompt (or open an Exodus console from an application menu) before they can run any program they develop in Exodus. Once they have done that, it does not matter what the current working directory is because the "exodus" program temporarily adds the Exodus home program directory to the users PATH.

On all operating systems, if there is a similarly named program earlier on in your path (e.g. operating system commands) then you will not be able to run your program because in all cases Exodus adds its path (to your home program directory) to the end of your existing path - not the beginning.

To make any developed Exodus programs available to other users you must arrange for them to be copied to some directory on their path.

Local subroutines

To simulate classic multivalue basic's "gosub/return" in Exodus, you can add additional subroutines and functions between the programinit() and programexit() lines.

You can add them either above or below the "main" function. There is no rule that functions must appear before or above the code that calls them.

Subroutines and functions cannot be nested otherwise compilation will fail. In other words, no function or subroutine can be contain within the body of another.

Simple Example

Here is hello1 modified to call a subroutine that says something.

The word "gosub" is just there for classical clarity. It could be omitted. It could also be replaced by "call" which is also a throwaway word. While gosub and call are interchangeable, if you are going to use them at all, it is probably a good idea to use "gosub funcx()" to indicate internal subroutines and "call funcx()" to indicate external subroutines.

#include <exodus/program.h>

programinit()

function main() {
        printl("hello1 says 'Hello World!'");

        gosub subr1();

        return 0;
}

subroutine subr1() {
        printl("subr1 says 'Hello'");
}

programexit()

output:

hello1 says 'Hello World!'
subr1 says 'Hello'

Subroutine and Function Parameters (Arguments)

Parameter names must be prefixed by "in", "out" or "io" to indicate if they are inbound, outbound or both.

Inbound parameters (prefixed with "in") cannot be amended within the function and the compiler will enforce this. This provides a guarantee to the programmer calling the subroutine or functions that their inbound parameters will not be modified by calling the function. Inbound parameters may be provided by the calling program either as a variable or as raw data like "xyz" or 123 etc.

In/Outbound parameters ("io") must be provided by the calling program in the form of a variable and not raw data. The function can both read and write into these parameters.

Outbound parameters ("out") indicate to the programmer using the function how it works. However, outbound parameters do not actually prevent them being used to provide data to the subroutine or function and are therefore no different from in/outbound parameters. There is no simple way to enforce "write only" parameters using the underlying C++ language.

For special cases, or where performance is critical, the usual C++ parameters are also allowed for example "int arg1" or "const char* arg2" etc.

External functions and subroutines

Editing and compiling external subroutines and functions in Exodus is identical to normal programs except:

1. the word "program" becomes "library" so we have "library.h", "libraryinit()" and "libraryexit()".
2. function main can have any parameters you like, for example: "function main(in arg1, in arg2, out arg3)

NB The name of the function internally MUST be main and not the name of the function so we still have "function main(...)" but this time it can have parameter names eg "subroutine main(in instr1, out outstr2)".

External functions and subroutines are implemented as dll or so files and are only loaded into memory the first time that they are used. A missing function or subroutine so or dll file will not cause any failure unless and until it is first used.

Example func1

edic func1

#include <exodus/library.h>

libraryinit()

function main(in arg1, out arg2) {
        printl("func1 says 'Hello World!'");
        arg2="arg1 was "^arg1;
        return 999;
}

libraryexit()

Example prog1 using func1

Compiling func1 created a func1.h file that is required to "glue" func1 into any program that wants to use func1.

To use func1 in any program or external subroutine or function, you need to insert an #include "func1.h" somewhere between "programinit()" and "programexit()" - and not within the body of any function or subroutine.

edic prog1

#include <exodus/program.h>

programinit()

//you must "declare" that we want to use func1
#include "func1.h"

function main() {
        printl("prog1 says 'Hello World!'");

        //we print what func1 returns, and also what func1 returns in arg2
        var arg2;
        printl(   func1("myarg1",arg2)   );
        printl(arg2);

        return 0;
}

programexit()

run prog1

prog1

output:

prog1 says 'Hello World!'
func1 says 'Hello World!'
999
arg1 was myarg1

Functions versus Subroutines

Functions can be used anywhere an expression would be used whereas subroutines can only be used as statements.

The same principle applies to both internal and external subroutines/functions.

Both subroutines and functions can return information in any of their "out" or "io" arguments.

The word "call" or "gosub" before the use of a function or subroutine is optional and can be omitted.

Functions

Functions return a value so you can use them anywhere an expression is required, for example on the right hand side of an assignment.

var yy=funcx(xx);

Even though a function returns a value, the value it returns can be ignored so the following are all equivalent.

call funcx(xx);
gosub funcx(xx);
funcx(xx);

Subroutines

Subroutines do not return a value so they can only be used as statements.

call subrx(xx);   
gosub subrx(xx);  
subrx(xx);        
var yy=subrx(xx); //will not compile

Differences between Exodus's Internal Subroutines and Functions and those of classic multivalue basic

Exodus's internal subroutines and functions are very different from and arguably much better than classic multivalue internal subroutines. They are very similar to external subroutines and functions except they also have access to the global variables of the main program.

Exodus Internal Subroutines and Functions:

1. can be called with parameters e.g. gosub funcx(xx,yy,zz)
2. only have access to the main programs global variables - this eliminates a major category of multivalue bugs
3. functions (not subroutines) can return a result e.g. abc=funcx(xx,yy,zz)

Exodus internal subroutines and functions only have one entry point. In classic multivalue basic you can jump into the middle of any internal subroutine. To simulate this type of coding in Exodus you must create a hierarchy of subroutines or functions that call each other.

The old RETURN TO XYZ syntax is not supported at all and such code must be redesigned to eliminate it.

Moving external subroutines and functions to internal

Exodus allows many classic multivalue basic external subroutines and functions to be reimplemented as internal subroutines and functions. This means that you can now, where appropriate, keep all source code related to one and only one program in a single file. This is a major improvement in source code management.

In classic multivalue basic, if you wanted to implement some function to be used in expressions you were forced to implement it as an external function requiring a separate source code file.

In classic multivalue basic if you wanted to call a subroutine with parameters, or you wanted to be sure that a subroutine would not accidentally overwrite main program variables, you were forced to implement it as an external subroutine or function.

In Exodus the above situations no longer force you to have separate compilation and source files. However you can still make subroutines and functions external exactly as before where that is the best strategy, for example:

1. to provide some common feature to more than one program
2. to avoid having to recompile the whole of a large program when you just change part of it
3. where there is some benefit in not loading all the parts of a program into memory immediately on start-up.

NB Exodus internal subroutines and functions have access to the global variables of the main program so you might want them to make them external to make sure that there is no risk that they touch any global variable.

Dimensioned Arrays

statement	effect
dim arraya(10);	create a one dimensional array with 10 elements
dim arrayb(20,30);	create two dimensional array with 20x30 elements
dim arraryc=arrayb;	create a new array from an existing array;
arrayb="";	initialise all elements to ""
arrayb(15,3)="abc";	set element 15,3 to "abc"
var xx=arrayb(15,3);	get element 15,3
arrayd=arrayc;	copy the elements of one array to another. If the arrays are of different sizes then only overlapping columns and rows are copied and all others are set to "". If the target array has not been dimensioned then the array is duplicated.
arrayb.redim(15,20);	destroy all data and redimension the array to 15x20
var nfields=matparse(record1,arrayb);	create a dimensioned array "arrayb" from a dynamic array/string "record1" and return the number of elements.
var record1=matunparse(arrayb);	create a dynamic array/string "record1" from a dimensioned array "arrayb"

Dynamic Arrays and < > Brackets

Exodus does not offer the elegant multivalue dynamic array extraction and replacement syntax like xx<10> xx<10,2> etc. The same result is achieved, if slightly less elegantly, with a different syntax which is compatible with mainstream languages.

Extraction

Mv Basic	Exodus	Exodus Alternative "Explicit" Syntax	Effect
AA=BB<10>	aa=bb(10);	aa=bb.extract(10);	Extract the 10th field of bb into aa
AA=BB<10,2>	aa=bb(10,2);	aa=bb.extract(10,2);	Extract the 10th field, 2nd multivalue of bb into aa
AA=BB<10,2,3>	aa=bb(10,2,3);	aa=bb.extract(10,2,3);	Extract the 10th field, 2nd multivalue, 3rd subvalue of bb into aa

xx(10,2) versus xx.extract(10,2)

Using round brackets "()" to indicate dynamic array extraction is potentially confusing since round brackets are also used for accessing dimensioned arrays.

It is sometimes useful to use the alternative explicit syntax e.g. "aa.extract(10)"

1. when using dynamic and dimensioned arrays together
2. when the meaning of round brackets "recordx()"
3. is considered not obvious from the context or variable names.
4. to be more visually or technically compatible with "curly bracket" family of languages

Replacement

Mv Basic	Exodus	Effect
AA<10>=BB	replacer(aa,10,bb);	Replace the 10th field of aa with bb
AA<10,2>=BB	replacer(aa,10,2,bb);	Replace the 10th field, 2nd multivalue of aa with bb
AA<10,2,3>=BB	replacer(aa,10,2,3,bb);	Replace the 10th field, 2nd multivalue, 3rd subvalue of aa with bb

NB The following apparently logical syntax will compile but do nothing.

Unfortunately no way has been found to provide both replacement and extraction of dynamic arrays by round brackets using standard C++ language. It is one or the other. Therefore Exodus has chosen to utilise round brackets for the more common operation which is extraction i.e. "aa=bb(10);" and require explicit "replacer" syntax for replacement.

aa(10)=bb; //compiles but doesnt do anything!

Appending

Mv Basic	Exodus	Effect
AA<-1>=BB	replacer(aa,-1,bb);	Append bb as a new field of aa.
AA<10,-1>=BB	replacer(aa,-1,bb);	Append bb as a new multivalue of the 10th field of aa.
AA<10,2,-1>=BB	replacer(aa,-1,bb);	Append bb as a new subvalue of the 10th field, 2nd multivalue of aa.

NB The following apparently logical syntax will compile but do nothing.

aa(-1)=bb;

Strings and [ ] Brackets

Exodus does not provide the elegant multivalue-style substring extraction and replacement syntax like xx[10,2] xx[-3,3] etc. The same result is achieved, if slightly less elegantly, with a different syntax which is compatible with mainstream languages.

Exodus provides a slightly better syntax for single character extraction.

Exodus provides a proper method to extract or replace all characters from a certain character to the end of the string. There is no to specify a large length like 999999.

Negative parameters have their usual meaning.

Extracting

Mv Basic	Exodus	Effect
AA=BB[10,2]	aa=bb.substr(10,2);	Extract 2 characters of bb starting from the 10th character (into aa)
AA=BB[10,999999]	aa=bb.substr(10);	Extract all the characters of bb starting from the 10th character (into aa)
AA=BB[-3,3]	aa=bb.substr(-3);	Extract the last three characters of bb (into aa)
AA=BB[10,1]	aa=bb[10];	Extract the 10th character of bb (into aa)
AA=BB[-1,1]	aa=bb[-1];	Extract the last character of bb (into aa)

Replacing

Mv Basic	Exodus	Effect
AA[10,1]=BB	splicer(aa,10,1,bb);	Replace the 10th character of aa (with bb)
AA[10,2]=BB]	splicer(aa,10,2,bb);	Replace 2 characters of aa starting from the 10th character (with bb)
AA[10,999999]=BB	splicer(aa,10,bb);	Replace all characters of aa starting from the 10th character (with bb)

Operators

Operator Precedence

priority	operators	effect	associativity
1	X++  X--  ()  .	evaluate then increment/decrement	right
2	++X  --X  +  -  not	increment/decrement then evaluate. positive, negative, logical negation	left
3	*  /  %	multiply, divide, remainder	right
4	+  -	add, subtract	right
5	lt  le  ge  gt	compare less than, less than or equal, greater than or equal, greater than	right
6	eq  ne	compare equal, not equal	right
7	^	concatenate	right
8	and	logical union	right
9	or	logical alternative	right
10	=  +=  -=  *=  /=  %=  ^=	assign, various self update	left

Logical and comparative operators

word	example	symbolic alternative
and	if (aa and bb)	&&
or	if (aa or bb)	||
not	if (not aa)	!
eq	if (aa eq bb)	==
ne	if (aa ne bb)	!=
gt	if (aa gt bb)	>
lt	if (aa lt bb)	<
le	if (aa le bb)	<=
ge	if (aa ge bb)	>=

and/or short circuiting

If the left hand side of an "or" operator is true then the right hand side is not even evaluated. Similarly, if the left hand side of an "and" operator is false then the right hand side is not even evaluated.

This provides a major programming convenience/performance advantage over classic multivalue basic.

if (aa eq 1 and bb eq 1) // if aa is not 1 then bb is not checked and could even be unassigned.
if (aa eq 1 or bb eq 1)  // if aa is 1 then bb is not checked and could even be unassigned.

ICONV/OCONV PATTERNS

Decimal (MD/MC)

input	conversion	output
1234	MD2	12.34
1234	MD20	1234.00
1234	MD20,	1,234.00
1234.5678	MD2	12.35
1234.5678	MD20	1234.57
1234.5678	MD20,	1,234.57
1234	MC2	12,34
1234	MC20	1234,00
1234	MC20,	1.234,00
1234	MD20-	1234.00

Date (D)

input	conversion	output
12345	D	18 OCT 2001
12345	D/	10/18/2001
12345	D-	10-18-2001
12345	D2	18 OCT 01
12345	D/E	18/10/2001
12345	DS	2001 OCT 18
12345	DS/	2001/10/18
12345	DM	10
12345	DMA	OCTOBER
12345	DY	2001
12345	DY2	01
12345	DD	18
12345	DW	4
12345	DWA	THURSDAY
12345	DQ	4
12345	DJ	291
12345	DL	31

Time (MT)

input	conversion	output
234800	MT	17:13
234800	MTH	05:13PM
234800	MTS	17:13:20
234800	MTHS	05:13:20PM
0	MT	00:00
0	MTH	12:00AM
0	MTS	00:00:00
0	MTHS	12:00:00AM

Hex (HEX/MX)

input	conversion	output
ab	HEX	(same as HEX8 or HEX4 depending on platform)
ab	HEX8	0000006100000062
ab	HEX4	00610062
ab	HEX2	6162
15	MX	F
254	MX	FE
255	MX	FF
256	MX	100
27354234	MX	1A1647A

Text (L/R/T)

input	conversion	output
abcd	L#3	abc
ab	L#3	ab␣
abcd	R#3	bcd
ab	R#3	␣ab
ab	T#3	ab␣
abcd	T#3	abc™d␣␣
42	L(0)#5	42000
42	R(0)#5	00042
42	T(0)#5	42000

Dictionaries

Exodus dictionaries enable classic multivalue database data definition. Dictionaries are just normal Exodus multivalue files that contain one record for each data column definition. You can use Exodus's edir program to manually edit dictionaries.

Dictionary file names must start with the word "dict_". For example, if you have a "books" file, then you will probably have a "dict_books" file.

You can list the contents of a dictionary by typing "list dict_filename".

Exodus Dictionary Format

0	DICTID	Field/Column Code
1	DICTTYPE	"F" or "S" : "F" means use Field No (i.e. raw data) and "S" means use Source Code (i.e. a function).
2	FIELDNO	Field number (0=key, 1=field 1 etc for "Fields"
3	TITLE	Title on reports
4	SM	S or M or Mnn : "Single Value" or "Multivalue" or "Multivalue Group nn"
5	KEYPARTNO	Multipart keys are separated by * characters.
6
7	CONVERSION	Conversion (MD/MT/D etc.)
8	SOURCE	Source Code of a subroutine to calculate the field. Multivalues are lines and the result must be placed in a variable "ANS".
9	JUST	"L" or "R" or "T" requesting left, right or text justification
10	WIDTH	Column Width on fixed width reports

Exodus Dictionary Subroutines

"S" type file dictionary entries define table columns that are derived by calling a subroutine.

Dictionary subroutines can be executed in two cases.

1. During a SSELECT command e.g. SELECT USERS WITH AGE_IN_YEARS > 10
2. In any Exodus program using the Exodus's "calculate" function. e.g. calculate("AGE_IN_YEARS")

Dictionary Subroutine Library Format

Dictionary subroutines are a simplified type of Exodus external subroutine.

A dictionary subroutine is in the format "dict(xyz){...}" where xyz is the dictionary field key *without* quotes and ... is one or more lines of ordinary Exodus source code.

The source code may contain calculate() statements that obtain the results of other dictionary fields.

The source code must result in the variable ANS being set with the required result.

Return statement(s) may be placed anywhere in the code but are not required.

They are slightly different from ordinary external subroutines and do not have programinit()/programexit() clauses. In OO terms, this means that they are simple global functions and not classes, therefore:

1. No global variables
2. Any local subroutines or functions must be defined before (above) the dictionary subroutine.

All the subroutines related to one dictionary file go in one "external subroutine library" which can either be written manually or generated automatically from the source code in field 8 of S type dictionaries using the "compile dict_USERS" command.

The library name must be the same as the dictionary file name unless a "USING dictfilename" clause is included in the SSELECT or LIST command.

edic dict_USERS

#include <exodus/dict.h>

dict(AGE_IN_DAYS) {
        ANS=date()-RECORD(1);
}

dict(AGE_IN_YEARS) {
        ANS=calculate("AGE_IN_DAYS")/365.25;
}

Dictionary subroutine variables

Dictionary subroutines have access to the following variables.

When using "calculate(dictid)" the programmer is responsible for setting all these variables (with the exception of ANS) *before* the calculate() expression.

Variable	Purpose
ID	The database record key.
RECORD	The database record
DICT	The dictionary file name.
MV	The required multivalue number or 0 for all.
ANS	Dictionary subroutines return their result in ANS.

Sort/Select Command

Exodus provides the classic multivalue sort/select command within any Exodus program followed by readnext().

Classic multivalue select/readnext functions only provide the keys of the selected records. Exodus provides the classic select/readnext and also selectrecords/readnextrecord which provides complete records instead of just keys.

The format of the select/sselect command is as follows:

 SELECT|SSELECT

 {max_number_of_records}

 {using filename}

 filename

 {datakeyvalue} ...

 {BY|BY-DSND fieldname} ...
 
 {

  WITH

  {NO|ALL|ANY}

  dict_field_id

  {
   CONTAINING|STARTING|ENDING|LIKE|EQ|NE|NOT|GT|LT|GE|LE=|<>|>|<|>=|<= value(s)
   |
   BETWEEN value AND value
  }

  {AND|OR}

 } ...

Pitfalls

Why wont ‘printl(lcaser(“ABC”));’ compile??

lcaser is designed to modify a variable so lcaser's parameter must be a variable and not raw data like "ABC".

Simply use lcase instead of lcaser:

printl(lcase(“ABC”));  //result is abc

aa(10)=bb; //compiles but doesnt do anything!

If you want to replace field 10 of a dynamic array aa do one of the following instead:

replacer(aa,10,bb);
aa.replacer(10,bb);

You can use "aa(10)" style syntax to extract dynamic array fields but not to replace them.

Traditional Multivalue Functions and Statements (non-OO)

Exodus clones traditional multivalue function and statement behaviour and retains their syntax as far as possible.

• Traditional functions are rendered as Exodus functions.
• Traditional statements are rendered as Exodus subroutines.

PRINT OCONV(DATE(),'D')

in Exodus becomes:

printl(oconv(date(),"D"));

String Commands

The use of most of Exodus's functions will be fairly obvious to traditional multivalue programmers.

Ηοwever it is not so obvious that all the functions ending in "-er" correspond to the old string commands.

For example, the classic multivalue "modify in-place" character conversion command:

CONVERT 'ab' TO 'cd' IN ZZ

is now represented in Exodus by:

converter(zz,"ab","cd");

Exodus provides a complete set of string modification commands even where there was no specific command in classic mv basic.

To guarantee fast performance (regardless of compiler optimisation) you should always use the command instead of the old "self assign" idiom.

For example:

ZZ=TRIM(ZZ)

should appear in Exodus as:

trimmer(zz);

and not:

zz=trim(zz);

Function Types

TYPE	FUNCTION TYPE
var=	traditional functions that return values and can be used in expressions and be on the right hand side of assignments
if	traditional conditional statements that started with "if" or ended with "then/else" (or could have)
cmd	traditional commands with no outputs
cmd2	traditional commands that now have outputs and can be used in expressions

Parameters/Argument Types

in	Parameters that provide data to the function. Can be variables or raw data like 1 or "X"
unspecified	Same as "in". Omission of the most common type de-clutters the documentation. NB When defining your own subroutines and functions "in" cannot be omitted from the source code.
io	Parameters that may provide and/or return data. Must be variables. Cannot be raw data like 1 or "X"
out	Parameters that return data. Must be variables. Cannot be raw data like 1 or "X"

Optional Parameters

Key	Default
=""	""
=" "	" "
="."	"."
=1	1
=0	0
=true	true
=false	false

Complete List of Functions

Environment

var=	osgetenv(envname)
if	osgetenv(envname, out value)
if	ossetenv(envname, newvalue)

Time/Date/Sleep

var=	date()
var=	time()
var=	timedate()
cmd	ossleep(milliseconds)
var=	ostime()

System File

if	osopen(filename, out filehandle)
cmd	osclose(filehandle)
var=	osbread(filehandle, startoffset, length)
cmd	osbread(out data, filehandle, startoffset, length)
cmd	osbwrite(data, filehandle, startoffset)
if	osread(out data, osfilename)
var=	osread(osfilename)
if	oswrite(data, osfilename)
if	osdelete(osfilename)
if	osrename(oldosfilename, newosfilename)
if	oscopy(fromosdir_or_filename, newosdir_or_filename)
cmd	osflush()

System Directory

var=	oslist(path=".", wildcard="", mode=0)
var=	oslistf(path=".", wildcard="")
var=	oslistd(path=".", wildcard="")
var=	osfile(filename)
var=	osdir(filename)
if	osmkdir(newdirname)
if	osrmdir(dirname, evenifnotempty=false)
var=	oscwd()
var=	oscwd(newdirname)

Program Control

var=	suspend(command)
var=	osshell(command)
var=	osshellread(command)
cmd	osshellread(out commandoutput, command)
cmd	osshellwrite(commandinput, command)
cmd	stop(text="")
cmd	abort(text)
var=	perform(command)
var=	execute(command)
var=	chain(command)
var=	logoff()
cmd	debug()

Variable Control

if	assigned(anyvar)
if	unassigned(anyvar)
cmd2	exchange(var1,var2)
cmd2	transfer(fromvar,tovar)

Console Output

cmd	print(instring)
cmd	printl(instring="")
cmd	printt(instring="")

Cursor

var=	at(column0orcode)
var=	at(column0, row0)
var=	getcursor()
cmd	setcursor(cursorstr)
var=	getprompt()
cmd	setprompt(promptchar)

Console Input

var=	input()
var=	input(out inputstr)
var=	input(prompt, out inputstr)
var=	inputn(n)

Math

var=	rnd(number)
cmd	initrnd(seednumber)
var=	mod(dividend, divisor)
var=	abs(number)
var=	pwr(base, exponent)
var=	exp(power)
var=	sqrt(number)
var=	sin(degrees)
var=	cos(degrees)
var=	tan(degrees)
var=	atan(degrees)
var=	loge(number)
var=	integer(number)
var=	floor(number)
var=	round(number, ndecimals=0)

String Creation

var=	chr(integer)
var=	str(instring, number)
var=	space(number)

String Info/Search

var=	count(instring, substr)
var=	dcount(instring, substr)
var=	index(instring, substr, occurrenceno=1)
var=	index2(instring, substr, startcharno=1)
var=	len(instring)
var=	length(instring)
if	match(instring, matchstr, options="")
var=	seq(inchar)

String Functions

var=	convert(instring, oldchars, newchars)
var=	crop(instring)
var=	field(instring, sepchar, fieldno, nfields=1)
var=	field2(instring, sepchar, fieldno, nfields=1)
var=	fieldstore(instring, sepchar, fieldno, nfields, replacementstr)
var=	lcase(instring)
var=	ucase(instring)
var=	lower(instring)
var=	raise(instring)
cmd2	quote(instring)
cmd2	unquote(instring)
var=	splice(instring, fromcharno, nchars, insertionstr)
var=	substr(instring, fromcharno)
var=	substr(instring, fromcharno, nchars)
var=	swap(instring, oldstr, newstr, options="")
var=	trim(instring, trimchars=" ")
var=	trimb(instring, trimchars=" ")
var=	trimf(instring, trimchars=" ")

String Commands

cmd2	converter(io instring, oldchars, newchars)
var=	cropper(io instring)
cmd2	fieldstorer(io instring, sepchar, fieldno, nfields, replacementstr)
cmd2	lcaser(io instring)
var=	ucaser(io instring)
cmd2	lowerer(io instring)
cmd2	raiser(io instring)
cmd2	quoter(io instring)
cmd2	unquoter(io instring)
cmd2	splicer(io instring, fromcharno, nchars, insertion)
var=	substrer(io instring, fromcharno)
var=	substrer(io instring, fromcharno, nchars)
cmd2	swapper(io instring, oldstr, newstr, options="")
cmd2	trimmer(io instring, trimchars=" ")
cmd2	trimmerb(io instring, trimchars=" ")
cmd2	trimmerf(io instring, trimchars=" ")

iconv/oconv

var=	oconv(instring, conversion)
var=	iconv(instring, conversion)

Database

if	connect(connectionstring="")
if	disconnect()
if	createdb(dbname, out errmsg)
if	deletedb(dbname, out errmsg)
if	createfile(filename, options="")
if	deletefile(filename)
if	clearfile(filename)
var=	listfiles()
if	createindex(filename, fieldname, usingdictfilename="")
if	deleteindex(filename, fieldname)
var=	listindexes(filename)
if	begintrans()
if	rollbacktrans()
if	committrans()

Database Files and Records

if	open(filename, out filehandle)
if	read(out record, filehandle, key)
if	readv(out record, filehandle, key, fieldnumber)
if	write(record, filehandle, key)
if	writev(record, filehandle, key, fieldn)
if	deleterecord(filehandle, key)
if	updaterecord(record, filehandle, key)
if	insertrecord(record, filehandle, key)
if	lock(filehandle, key)
cmd	unlock(filehandle, key)
cmd	unlockall()

Record Selection

if	select(sortselectclause="")
cmd	clearselect()
if	readnext(out key)
if	readnext(out key, out valueno)
if	selectrecord(sortselectclause="")
if	readnextrecord(out key, out record)

Dictionary

var=	calculate(fieldname)
var=	xlate(filename, key, fieldno, mode)

Dynamic Array Functions

var=	replace(instring, fieldno, replacement)
var=	replace(instring, fieldno, valueno, replacement)
var=	replace(instring, fieldno, valueno, subvalueno, replacement)
var=	extract(instring, fieldno=0, valueno=0, subvalueno=0)
var=	erase(instring, fieldno, valueno=0, subvalueno=0)
var=	insert(instring, fieldno, insertion)
var=	insert(instring, fieldno, valueno, insertion)
var=	insert(instring, fieldno, valueno, subvalueno, insertion)
if	locate(instring, target, out setting, fieldn=0, valuen=0)
if	locateby(instring, target, ordercode, out setting, fieldn=0, valuen=0)
if	locateusing(instring, target, usingchar, out setting, fieldn=0, valuen=0, subvaluen=0)
if	locateusing(instring, target, usingchar)
var=	remove(fromstr, io startx, out delimiterno)
var=	sum(instring, sepchar=VM_)

Dynamic Array Commands

cmd2	replacer(io instring, fieldno, replacement)
cmd2	replacer(io instring, fieldno, valueno, replacement)
cmd2	replacer(io instring, fieldno, valueno, subvalueno, replacement)
cmd2	inserter(io instring, fieldno, insertion)
cmd2	inserter(io instring, fieldno, valueno, insertion)
cmd2	inserter(io instring, fieldno, valueno, subvalueno, insertion)
cmd2	eraser(io instring, fieldno, valueno=0, subvalueno=0)